s 



^b- 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 170. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Clnef of liureou 



TEACTION PLOAYING, 



L. W. ELLIS, 
Assistant, Offk^e of Farm Management. 



IssuEJ. March 12, 1910. 




C3 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1910. 




Rnok f~ ^ 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 170. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. 



TKACTION PLOWING. 



L. W. ELLIS, 

■» 

Assistant, Office of Farm Management. 



Issued March 12, 1910. 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 



1910. 



■^ 









BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. 



Chief of Bureau, Beverly T. Galloway. 
Assistant Chief of Bureau, G. Harold Powell. 
Editor, 3. E. Rockwell. 
Chief Clerk, James E. Jones. 



Office of Farm Management. 

scientific staff. 

WiUiam J. Spi\lina,n, Agriculturist in Charge. 
D. A. Brodie, David Griffiths, and C. B. Smith, Agriculturists. 
J. H. Arnold, Levi Chubhuck, M. E. McCulloch, A. D. McNair, G. E. Monroe, Harry Thompson, and 

E. H. Thomson, Experts. 
J. C. Beavers, G. A. Billings, M. C. Burritt, J. S. Gates, J. S. Cotton, H. R. Cox, M. A. Crosby, D. H. 

Doane, L. G. Dodge, J. A. Drake, L. W. Ellis, J. W. Froley, C. L. Goodrich, Byron Hunter, H. B. 

McClure, J. C. McDowell, H. A. Miller, W. A. Peek, J. A. Warren, and B. Youngblood, Assistant 

Agriculturists. 
C. M. Bennett, M. O. Bugby, E. L. Hayes, M. M. Oflutt, A. G. Smith, E. A. Stanford, and G. J. Street, 

Special Agents. 
170 



vl^a 



26 ^9^0 






K 

^ ^ 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Office of the Chief, 
Washington, T). C, November 2^, 1909. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report cleaHng with 
the present status of plowing \\dth traction engines as the motive 
power, by Mr. L. W. ElHs, Assistant in the Office of Farm Manage- 
ment of this Bureau. The economy and practicability of the use of 
tractors for heavy farm work rather than the mechanical features 
involved are discussed in this paper. I recommend that this manu- 
script be published as Bulletin No. 170 of the special series of this 
Bureau. 

Respectfully, 

B. T. Galloway, 

Chief of Bureau. 

Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



170 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction ' 

Geographical distribution of traction -plowing outfits 9 

Principal traction-plowing sections 10 

Equipment for traction plowing 11 

Plows used with engines 12 

Disk plows 12 

Moldboard plows 13 

Engines 14 

Miscellaneous equipment 16 

Factors affecting the economy of operation of steam outfits. 16 

Cost of operation 16 

Overhead charges 17 

Repairs, oil, etc 19 

Labor 20 

Water 21 

Plowing capacity of traction outfits 21 

Income from traction-plowing outfits 23 

Average results with steam-plowing outfits 24 

Cost of plowing with steam engines 25 

Comparative results with steam engines of different sizes 26 

Cable system of steam plowing 27 

Internal-combustion engines 28 

Cost of plowing with gasoline engines 30 

Cost of plowing with horses 34 

Practicability of traction plowing 36 

Index 43 



ILLUSTRATION. 



Fig. 1. Map of the United States, showing the approximate location of the 
majority of the operators of traction engines who contributed the 

data contained in the tables presented in this bulletin 9 

170 5 



B. F. I.— 528. 



TRACTION PLOWING 



INTRODUCTION. 

For several decades, or practically ever since the development of 
steam traction engines for thrashing purposes, attempts have been 
made to use these engines instead of horses for the heavier field 
work, especially plowing. In the beginning failure was the result in 
nearly every case. The engines available were of small size, such as 
were only sufficiently powerful to drive a grain separator and haul it 
from place to place. The plows used were in the main those designed 
for use with animal power and were unsuitable as to both weight and 
construction for use with engines. When enough plows of this sort 
were hitched together to utilize the power such an engine was capable 
of developing, the outfit proved to be unwieldy, especially in turning. 
The transmission through light, narrow traction gearing, designed for 
light loads, of power sufficient for pulling this number of plows 
usually resulted in expensive breakage. Accidents to plows were 
frequent, not only because of their unsuitability, but owing to the 
difficulty of stopping for obstructions before damage was done. The 
small capacity of the makeshift outfits and the inexperience of oper- 
ators were additional handicaps, and little progress was made during 
a long period. 

Following the growth of grain farming in the West, the demand 
for larger and faster thrashing outfits resulted in an increase in size 
until engines rated at 25-horsepower came into common use. These 
being very powerful were supposed by many farmers to be adapted 
for plowing, and since they were used only a short period each year 
for thrashing many were fitted with plows, with little more success 
than in previous attempts. 

Early in the last decade the field for plowing engines attracted the 
attention of various manufacturers, who began to remodel and 
design their tractors with this end in view. In addition to strength- 
ening the gears, axles, shafting, etc., on general-purpose engines, 
certain companies brought out special plowing tractors, usually of 
greater horsepower than could be economically used except for this 
one operation. With the introduction of this equipment, together 
19570— Bill. 170—10 2 7 



8 TRACTION PLOWING. 

with plows suitable for engine plowing, the practice had a rapid 
extension, and instances of successful operation became more numer- 
ous as equipment was improved and skilled operators were developed. 

The opening up of vast tracts of level territory where the acreage 
to be broken was so great as to discourage the idea of turning it 
with single teams and horse plows created a lively demand for steam 
plowing outfits, and in this field more than any other have they 
demonstrated their practicability. Under favorable conditions the 
advantages are numerous. Large areas, which otherwise would 
have remained uncultivated, have been brought quickly into pro- 
ductiveness and have been cropped with a minimum of horse and 
man labor, which has constantly become more expensive. Crop 
returns have often been greatly increased through taking advantage 
of favorable soil and climatic conditions for getting the land in shape 
for seeding, especially in sections where these conditions are of short 
duration. Work at such times has been rushed, often continuing 
day and night. At other times, as in hot, dry weather, traction out- 
fits have been used where horses could stand the work but a short 
period, if at all. Through concentration of power it has been pos- 
sible to plow very difficult soils and to plow deeply, when desired, in 
ordinary soils. 

Under favorable conditions the cost of traction plowing has been 
brought below that of horse plowing. Considering the total cost of 
prime mover, shelter, and incidental equipment, and the surplus of 
horses needed to keep a given number in the field, the investment in 
motive power is frequent^ reduced by the substitution of engines for 
horses in plowing, and maintenance during periods of idleness is greatly 
simplified. These factors and the possibility of obtaining greater 
service from thrashing engines have firmly established the practice 
of steam plowing in sections which by reason of topography, fuel and 
water convenience, and state of settlement are adapted to it. 

The desire for economical motors in smaller units, together with 
the scarcity and high price of labor and the limited supply of coal 
and water in some localities, has created a demand for internal-com- 
bustion tractors which has kept in advance of their development. 
The first gasoline traction engine to be used successfully was put on 
the market about 1903. Since that time numerous other companies 
have entered this field with greater or less success, and many of the 
steam-engine manufacturers are now developing internal-combustion 
engines as well. The gasoline tractors are being used in the same 
localities and for the same work as the steam engines, and a few are 
being built in sizes approximately as large. They have been built 
also in small and medium sized units and are being introduced rapidly 
into sections to which large steam engines were not adapted, 

170 



GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OUTFITS. y 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TRACTION-PLOWING OUTFITS. 

Traction plowing has reached its greatest development in the 
newer agricultural regions where land is level and held in large tracts. 
The accompanying map (fig. 1) shows the location of the operators 
of direct traction outfits who answered in detail a circular letter bear- 
ing on this subject sent out by the Office of Farm Management. In a 
general way, their number and distribution are representative of the 
whole number, though some sections are not properly represented, 
and it is estimated that the number shown is not more than 2^ per 
cent of the total operating in 1908. A considerable number of outfits 




Fig. 1. — Map of the United States, showing the approximate location of the majority of the operators of 
traction engines who contributed the data contained in the tables presented in this bulletin. The 
total number of outfits on which data were secured is over 500, locuted in the United States and 
Canada. Many operators furnished only partial information. 



are to be found in the valleys in Utah, Wyoming, Montana, and 
Idaho; also in certain favorable sections of New Mexico and of 
various Middle and Southern States, while much larger numbers than 
are indicated are to be found on the Pacific coast. East of the 
Missouri River and the Dakotas the outfits are well scattered. The 
conditions in the Canadian provinces of Manitoba, Alberta, and 
Saskatchewan resemble those in the Northwestern States, and a 
large number of outfits are found there. Some of the information 
derived from Canadian operators is included in the tables presented 
later in this bulletin. 

170 



10 TRACTION PLOWING. 

PRINCIPAL TRACTION-PLOWING SECTIONS. 

As will be noted from the map, three fairly distinct sections are to 
be found where traction plowing is common, namely, the Pacific 
Coast States; the Northwestern States, including North Dakota, 
South Dakota, and Minnesota; and the Southwestern States, in- 
cluding Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, and Texas. Within each sec- 
tion conditions are similar, but between the different sections con- 
siderable variation in practice is to be attributed to differences in 
natural conditions. 

In the Northwestern States and in Canada much prairie sod re- 
mains to be broken and the land is held in large open tracts. Grades 
seldom are objectionable and the natural difficulties are chiefly wet 
weather, soft ground, hidden rocks, and pot holes or buffalo wallows. 
In some sections brush or scrub is a handicap. A low quality of 
coal is found underlying parts of this region and is occasionally used 
for fuel. The coal shipped in is of the usual quality, but becomes very 
expensive in some places. Straw, either loose or baled, is used for 
fuel to a large extent during the fall, though not so convenient as 
coal or wood. By plowing stubble land in the autumn dry footing 
is obtained, and the frost tends to loosen up any soil which may have 
been packed by the weight of the engine. vSod land is commonly 
plowed rather shallow in the spring and frequently backset in the 
fall. Moldboard plows are used almost exclusively both for "break- 
ing" and on old land, as disk plows leave the sod in such shape that 
it disintegrates slowly. "Breaking" in this connection refers to the 
turning of wild sod. The farms in the Dakotas and Minnesota on 
which steam and the larger gasoline outfits are reported average 825 
acres in size, 510 acres being in harvested crops. 

Traction plowing is more common in the western part of Kansas 
and Nebraska' than in the eastern part, where corn-belt conditions 
are found. Throughout parts of these States and in Colorado, New 
Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas level land and large tracts make plow- 
ing outfits desirable. The lack of rainfall throughout a large portion 
of the year makes the ground dry and hard, and horse plowing at 
such times is practically impossible. In wet weather the advantage 
is reversed, but the season for traction-plowing outfits is of such dura- 
tion as to enable a large acreage to be turned. Disk plows will pene- 
trate the dry ground better than moldboard plows and permit of a 
longer plowing season; hence, they are used by the great majority 
of operators. In Colorado the moldboard plows are used quite 
largely for breaking alfalfa sod. In sage-brush prairie in this State 
breaking is unusually difficult, being reflected in reduced acreage 
and a higher plowing rate. Outfits reported from the Southwest are 
distributed about equally among farms under a half section, from 

170 



EQUIPMENT FOR TRACTION PLOWING. 11 

a half section to a section, from one to two sections, and over two 
sections, 10 per cent being over four sections. 

Semiarid conditions in both the southwestern and the north- 
western regions foster the demand for a gasoline engine of large 
capacity, both on account of the labor problem and of the difficulty 
of obtaining either quantity or quality of water. 

In California conditions are essentially different from those east of 
the mountains. Grain ranches are on a larger scale and employ 
larger units of equipment. Custom plowing is a minor item, the 
larger ranches furnishing work to the entire capacity of one or more 
outfits. The steam plow is ^ natural adjunct of the steam combined 
harvester and is frequently used with the latter to handle the crops, 
with the assistance of only such teams as are needed to haul supplies. 
The ground is in the best state for seeding for a short time only, and 
during this period every possible advantage is taken of the capacity 
of the big steam outfits. California-built plows of light draft but 
capable of covering large areas are popular, and the isolation of the 
State with respect to eastern manufacturers has contributed to the 
adoption of equipment designed and built by local concerns. 

The South and the corn belt are not adapted to plowing with the 
large steam outfits now in use on account of the small fields, the lack 
of custom work, and the low price per acre to be had for custom plow- 
ing. A large part of the plowing in these sections must necessarily 
be done in the winter and spring after the late crops are harvested, 
and the heavy engines are not adapted for work on old land where 
much moisture is present. Moreover, there is little inducement for 
farmers in these sections to invest in a large plowing equipment where 
horses must be maintained without practical reduction in numbers 
for cultivating the crop. The development of gasoline tractors of 
comparatively low weight, price, and horsepower, which can be used 
in the fields to supplement the work of horses and elsewhere for a 
variety of purposes, seems likely to prove economical not only from 
the standpoint of investment and cost of operation and maintenance, 
but from that of increased returns through the application at times 
when it is urgently needed of power not ordinarily available. 

Throughout the Eastern States small fields and heavy grades 
generally prove prohibitive to the use of even the smaller motors. 

EQUIPMENT FOR TRACTION PLOWING. 

The equipment for traction plowing varies according to location, 
natural conditions, and preference. The standard types may be con- 
sidered under three heads: (1) Plows, (2) prime mover or engine, and 
(3) miscellaneous equipment, including all conveniences for the trans- 
portation of supplies, the repair of equipment, and the care and com- 

170 



12 TEACTION PLOWING. 

fort of the crew. Harrows, rollers, and other tillage implements, 
which are frequently drawn in connection with the plows, may also 
be considered under the last head. 

PLOWS USED WITH ENGINES. 

Practically all traction plowing is now done with specially designed 
engine gang plows. These may be divided into the disk and mold- 
board types, and the latter into steam-lift and hand-lift. Engine 
gangs present greater variation in type and adaptability than do 
engines, and this is an important factor in such success as the practice 
of traction plowing has had. Variations in plow shapes, such as have 
been worked out for local conditions, apply as well to engine as to 
horse plows ; hence the problem has been principally to combine plow 
units into large gangs in the most satisfactory manner. 

DISK PLOWS. 

Disk plows are popular with traction plowmen, as it is possible with 
them to cover more ground with a given expenditure of time and 
power than with moldboard plows. Furthermore, it is possible with 
them to plow a continuous furrow around a field without labor and 
loss of time in lifting plows at corners or headlands, though in this 
case the corners are usually left to be plowed out with horses. Disk 
plows, especially the smaller gangs, accommodate themselves readily 
to uneven surfaces and tend to roll over obstructions. They can be 
used under certain conditions where moldboard plows can not; yet 
it is doubtful whether, on the whole, they do as good work. They are 
usually hitched to the engine by means of cables or chains, and the 
matter of hitching has given rise to serious problems. It was found 
difhcult to turn corners with all plows in the ground when small 
gangs were used; hence, the number of disks per gang was increased 
until ten, twelve, and even sixteen were hung on a single frame. 
Besides being extremely heavy to lift, the large gangs proved to be 
unwieldy and hard to keep in line. The resistance of all the disks 
was thrown upon the rear wheel, tending to crowd the gang to the 
left and making it necessary to weight the rear of the gang heavily 
to keep the plows in the ground. Balancing the hitch by placing it 
near the front of the gang transferred the difficulty to the guiding 
of the engine, since the center of the draft was not in the center of 
the drawbar. Gradually the five, six, and seven disk gangs, which 
have proved more successful than either extreme, were evolved. 

Ordinary disks are 24 inches in diameter, though larger sizes are 
frequently bought, especially in sandy regions, where wear is rapid. 
From ten to fifteen disks is a medium load for the majority of gaso- 
line engines, and from fifteen to twenty-eight for steam engines, vary- 

170 



EQUIPMENT FOR TRACTION PLOWING. 13 

ing, of course, with the horsepower of the engines, the condition of the 
soil, the width of the cut per disk, the depth, and whether or not har- 
rows follow the plows. These plows cost from $125 to $175 for a 
medium-sized gang east of the Rocky Mountains and somewhat more 
on the Pacific coast, where the cost of a disk-plow equipment would 
range in most cases from $250 to 



MOLDBOARD PLOWS. 



Moldboard engine gangs were developed in response to the demand 
for a more compact arrangement than was possible with horse plows, 
and large gangs followed naturally. Since these had to be raised and 
lowered frequently, gangs of three to six bottoms prevailed until the 
advent of steam-lift plows. These in reality consist of several gangs 
of four to six plows hung on a single frame, each gang being lifted 
and dropped by means of a cylinder supplied with steam from the 
engine. Plows of this type usually contain eight, ten, or twelve 
14-inch bottoms, though larger sizes are built for special soils. Com- 
pactness and the possibility of backing and turning in close quarters 
have made the steam-lift plow popular, though the first cost is 
greater, ranging from $900 to $1,500 for ordinary-sized gangs. 

Types of hand-lift plows embodying the size and compactness of 
the steam-lift plow consist of a frame to the rear of which the bot- 
toms are attached. In both this and the steam-lift types flexibility 
is secured by making the bottoms vertically independent of each other 
or by combining them in pairs. Irregularities in ground surface are 
thus met and in case of a solid obstruction one or two bottoms may 
be released without damage to the whole outfit. In this type of 
hand-lift plow each bottom or pair of bottoms is raised and lowered 
by a lever, from six to fourteen being mounted on the frame. 

The cost of these plows is considerably less than that of the steam- 
lift type, ranging from $500 to $900, but as a rule the latter can be 
operated with one man less to the outfit. 

The smaller moldboard engine gangs usually contain from tlu^ee to 
seven plows, the 14-inch bottom being practically universal. The 
frame is much heavier than in the case of horse plows and the cost 
per bottom greater, ranging, within reasonable distance from the 
factory, from $100 for three furrows to from $200 to $250 for six. 
In some types, especially in small gangs, the plow bottoms are held 
rigidly, but in the larger gangs the tendency is to give each plow 
a certain freedom, as in the case of the steam-lift type. At present 
six to eight bottoms for gasoline and twelve to fourteen for steam 
engines are maximum sustained loads for most conditions. 

A cheap and fairly effective modification of the moldboard plow 
known as the Stockton gang is used widely on large ranches in Cali- 

170 



14 TEACTION PLOWING. 

fornia. This consists of a triangular frame holding on a rigid stand- 
ard from three to eight reversible plow shapes cutting 8 to 10 inches 
each. It is adapted to shallow plowing, stirring rather than turning 
the soil, and with the large engines used in that section a great 
acreage can be covered in a day, a strip 30 to 40 feet wide being not 
uncommon. 

ENGINES. 

The prime moV'ers used for plowing are mainly of two types: 
(1) The ordinary steam traction engine and (2) the internal-combus- 
tion engine using a liquid fuel, such as gasoline, kerosene, or distil- 
late, and commonly spoken of as a gasoline engine. Since the con- 
ditions surrounding their operation are essentially different, these two 
types will be taken up separately and discussed in connection with 
the results obtained from the use of each. 

Steam engines are much more common than gasoline engines as 
factors in traction plowing. The variations in mechanical detail are 
numerous, though as a class these engines are more nearly standard 
than the gasoline tractors. The principal variations are in type of 
boiler, cylinder arrangement, and mounting. The horizontal boiler 
is found in the majority of engines, with either direct or return flue 
arrangement. In the former, which is most common, the products 
of combustion pass directly from the fire box through the flues to the 
front of the boiler and the smokestack. In the latter the gases pass 
to the front of the boiler through a large flue, returning through 
smaller tubes to a stack at the rear of the boiler. 

All ordinary arrangements of cylinders are to be found on leading 
plowing engines. These include single and double cylinders, not 
compounded, and compound engines, in which steam is admitted 
first to a small cylinder and partially expanded and then to a larger 
cylinder where advantage is taken of its further expansion, both 
cylinders thus working through a shorter range of temperature. 
The arrangement of compound cylinders gives rise to the terms 
"tandem" and "cross-compound," signifying cylinders placed one 
ahead of the other and side by side, respectively. Some cross-com- 
pound engines may be converted at will into double simple engines, 
thus gaining additional power, as for starting a load, at a sacrifice of 
economy. 

In most cases the driving mechanism is mounted on the boiler, 
though occasionally built upon a frame entirely separate. Where 
these parts are beneath the boiler they are said to be "under- 
mounted." The same term is used to describe a tractor in which the 
main axle extends under the boiler, ahead of the fire box. Fre- 
quently the traction wheels revolve on bracket axles bolted to the 
sides of the fire box. This is termed "side mounting." A very satis- 

170 



EQUIPMENT FOR TRACTION PLOWING. 15 

factory axle position is in the rear mounting, in which continuous 
axles are fastened to the rear of the boiler. The ideal arrangement 
for a plowing engine is a driving mechanism supported entirely with- 
out strain on either boiler or fire box, yet fully protected from the 
clouds of dust which arise in plowing. 

All plowing engines are equipped with wide drive wheels to prevent 
miring in soft ground and loss of power through slippage. The trac- 
tion gearing is wider than on thrashing engines, and is usually of steel 
or semisteel. Bunkers for several hours' coal supply and tanks for 
from one to three hours' water supply are provided, though in plow- 
ing it is usually necessary to take supplies about once an hour. 

To withstand the strain and secure tractive efficiency these engines 
are of great weight, ranging from 7 to 20 tons. In the largest en- 
gines some reduction in weight and gain in strength are effected by 
substituting steel for cast iron. Throughout the entire construction 
emphasis is placed upon resistance to the tremendous strain of a 
heavy dead load on the drawbar. 

Steam engines used for plowing are usually rated at from 20 to 50 
tractive horsepower, most of them being between 25 and 35 horse- 
power. This is an arbitrary rating, placed near the efficiency of the 
engines as compared with horses, and much below the actual horse- 
power as measured by a brake test. The latter measures the power 
available for driving stationary machinery. It must be remembered 
that the power of a horse is measured in effective pull, while the en- 
gine will do many more foot-pounds of work per unit of time while 
standing still than when moving. Much of the power developed is 
used in moving the tractor and some is lost in transmission, while a 
reserve must be maintained for such emergencies as the horse can 
overcome by exerting for a short time as high as four or five times 
his normal efficiency. It is true that under like conditions a certain 
increase in power may be had of a steam engine, but to discourage 
overloading on the start and accidents in case of sudden obstacles 
the rating is usually placed at from one-fourth to one-third the brake 
horsepower. No general rule is followed. Both tractive and brake 
ratings should be known in connection with a general-purpose engine 
and should be placed at the point of maximum durable load rather 
than at the absolute maximum which can be sustained for a short 
period. 

The cost of these engines varies with the locality and terms of pur- 
chase. Net factory prices quoted by manufacturers in the Middle 
West range from $1,500 to $3,000 for the sizes just mentioned. On 
the Pacific coast the common type of engine is larger, rating at 60 
tractive and 110 brake horsepower, and selling, fully equipped, at 
from $5,000 to $6,000, according to terms and equipment. 
19570— Bui. 170—10 3 



16 TRACTION PLOWING, 



MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT. 



In addition to engines and plows, miscellaneous equipment requir- 
ing the expenditure of a considerable sum is necessary in operating a 
steam outfit. There must usually be at least one coal wagon of the 
ordinary farm type, costing probably $75, and a second, called the 
"trap" wagon, for carrying repair parts, tools, and odds and ends. 
The tank wagon, with either a steel or wooden tank holding 10 to 16 
barrels, is usually purchased with the engine, its price being included. 
Purchased separately it will cost from $75 to $200. A drag harrow, 
disk harrow, roller, crusher, or planker is usually a part of the outfit. 
Blacksmithing and miscellaneous tools cost from $20 to $50. In a 
few cases, where water is near the surface, permanent wells are sunk 
at convenient intervals and a small gasoline engine used for pumping. 
Quite often the custom operator carries an engine and attaches it to 
the farmer's well rather than depend on wind power. For plowing 
at a distance from headquarters, either a tent or cook shack, the 
latter on wheels, is advisable, as with this equipment the crew loses no 
time in going to meals during the day or to the engine in firing up in 
the morning. The shack, complete, will cost from $200 to $300 as 
a rule, and occasionally $500. Teams will add to the investment, 
but are for convenience included as a part of the labor cost of oper- 
ating. As an average first cost of miscellaneous equipment for 
steam-plowing outfits $500 is estimated. 

FACTORS AFFECTING THE ECONOMY OF OPERATION OF STEAM 

OUTFITS. 

The factors entering into the economy of either steam or gasoline 
plowing include not only those concerning the operation of equip- 
ment, but those arising from the effect of the practice upon the man- 
agement of the individual farm and upon the agriculture of a section. 
The latter have been outlined somewhat in the introductory para- 
graphs, but owing to the nature of the problem this investigation has 
been confined chiefly to study of the cost of operation, the factors 
governing which are more clearly defined. The essential factors are 
so many and so varied that certain ones may easUy be overlooked; 
hence, they will be discussed in some detail. 

COST OF OPERATION. 

The actual cost of operation includes not only the cash outlay for 
labor, fuel, oil, repairs, etc., but the interest and depreciation on 
equipment. The figures presented in tliis connection are not to be 
taken as final, because (1) very few operators keep accurate ac- 
counts, (2) depreciation and repair charges must be based almost 
entirely on estimates, only a small proportion of plowing outfits hav- 

170 



FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMY OF OPERATION OF STEAM OUTFITS. 17 

ing actually been worn out, and (3) with the improvement in equip- 
ment and with the education of operators the efficiency of outfits 
must be gradually increased. Detailed estimates of the cost of plow- 
ing are given by sections. 

OVERHEAD CHARGES. 

Among the factors in the cost of plowing which are very often dis- 
regarded by operators who have not had a business training are the 
overhead charges, which include interest on the money invested and 
the depreciation of the outfit. If the outfit is bought on time the 
matter of interest is necessarily brought to the owner's attention. 
However, it is a frequent practice among owners who have paid cash 
to allow nothing for interest on their capital, thus apparently in- 
creasing the net profits from their work when as a matter of fact the 
venture may not be paying as good a rate of interest as might have 
been obtained by depositing the capital in an ordinary savings bank. 
Seven or 8 per cent interest is a common rate on machinery notes in 
the sections where traction plowing is most common. 

The matter of depreciation is probably even less considered by the 
average operator than that of interest. Depreciation charges should 
be made in order that at the expiration of the life of the outfit a suffi- 
cient amount shall have been set aside either to replace the outfit 
in its original condition or to restore to the owner his original capital. 
The rate of depreciation depends, of course, upon the wear and tear 
on an outfit during a given period of use, or, in other words, upon the 
life of the outfit. The practice of traction plowing is so new that 
the average life of plowing engines can not be accurately deter- 
mined, and the rapid improvements in equipment make of little value 
such figures as are obtainable from outfits already partially worn out. 
The life of plomng engines depends not only on the care given and 
the amount of work done, but upon natural conditions, such as cli- 
mate, soil, topography, and in the case of steam engines the water 
used in the boilers. The soil in particular, with respect to its re- 
sistance, uniformity, and grittiness, exerts a great influence on the 
life and repairs of both engines and plows. 

Manufacturers of steam outfits vary in their estimates of the life of 
plowing engines from four and one-half years when given maximum 
use to twenty years for ordinary use with excellent care. The gen- 
eral opinion of the manufacturers ranges between eight and twelve 
years, converging at ten. The factor of use per year must be taken 
into consideration. In California eleven o^vners of large steam en- 
gines plowing nearly 3,500 acres per year each make an average 
estimate of fifteen years. Thirty out of seventy-six correspondents 
in the Southwest estimate ten years as the life of their engines, the 

170 



18 TKACTION PLOWING. 

average of the whole number being 10.04 years. The average acreage 
per year reported from these operators is 1,075. In the Northwest 
and Canada thirty-two out of eighty-five operators estimate 10 
years, and the average estimate is 10.7 years. Their average acreage 
per year is 797. Taking the two sections together and considering, 
as before, only those operators who state the annual acreage and the 
estimated life, sixt3^-two out of one hundred and sixty-one agree on 
ten years, the average being 10.4 years, while the average area 
plowed per year is 903 acres. 

The consensus of opinion regarding the life of engines used in 
plowing and thrashing might fairly be taken as a basis for estimating the 
rate of depreciation, but closer inquiry in the field reveals the fact 
that while many engines of the type now being put out will have a life 
of ten years the majority of operators do not expect ten years' 
service in plowing. A great many place the plowing service at from 
four to six years, after which, when equipped with new gears and 
generally rebuilt, the engines are fit for service in tlirashing as long as 
the boiler lasts, which may easily reach a like period thereafter. For 
this reason it is probable that the majority of correspondents who 
placed the life of their plowing engines at ten or more years misun- 
derstood the question asked in the circular letter sent out by the 
Office of Farm Management. After duly considering all the data 
and estimates regarding the life of plowing engines, a rate of 10 per 
cent of the first cost of the engine is taken as the value consumed 
annually in plowing alone during the first five years of the life of the 
outfit. 

Since approximately 90 per cent of the engines reported as plowing 
are used also for other purposes — principally thrashing — and an average 
of reports indicates approximately equal periods of plowing and 
thrashing, a division of the interest and depreciation charges on the 
basis of comparative wear and tear becomes necessary. The wear 
and strain on engines in the two operations is essentially different, 
being heaviest on different parts during each. When thrasliing, the 
wear is mainly on the engine parts, and in plowing on both the engine 
parts and the traction gearing. The wear in plowing has been vari- 
ously estimated at from two to ten times that in thrashing. The 
opinion of several of the leading manufacturers and other authorities 
centers about 75 per cent of the total wear as chargeable to plowing, 
as compared to 25 per cent for thrasliing during equal periods of 
service. Since the reports from operators indicate practically the 
same number of days' plowing and thrashing each year, these figures 
are taken as the basis for dividing the overhead charges. Repairs 
might be included under this head, since they can be divided on this 
basis, but it has been considered more appropriate to include them 
under running expenses. 

170 



FACTOKS AFFECTING ECONOMY OF OPERATION OF STEAM OUTFITS. 19 

Following the method outlined of calculating and dividing the 
overhead charges, the division on an engine costing $3,000 would 
be, for the first five years, at the rate of 10 per cent depreciation and 
51 per cent interest for plowing, 3 J per cent depreciation and If per 
cent interest for thrashing. With regard to the calculation of 
interest, however, the average investment during each five-year 
period must be ascertained. Granting the approximate correctness 
of the preceding assumption, it is seen that the total rate of deprecia- 
tion of the engine will be $400 a year and at the end of the fifth season 
the value will have been reduced to $1 ,000. As interest is taken on the 
value of the engine at the beginning of each season, the average value 
during the five seasons is seen to be $2,200. Interest at 7 per cent, 
therefore, would be $154 each year, or $115.50 for plowing and $38.50 
for thrashing. Depreciation during the same time would be $300 
and $100, respectively. During the last five years of the life of the 
engine both interest and depreciation would be chargeable to thrash- 
ing, the former at the rate of 7 per cent on an average valuation of 
$600 and the latter at an average rate of $200. As a matter of fact, 
the establishment of depreciation charges must be largely theoretical 
even in the most carefully conducted manufacturing or transportation 
enterprises, but the matter is one which should be carefully figured 
upon by every operator. Few traction engines are ever actually worn 
out; hence, the values are seldom reduced to a practical zero. With- 
out extended investigation, which it is hoped may be undertaken, 
accurate figures covering the entire life of traction engines are not 
to be had, but without such figures from a considerable number of 
operators the estimates given are as likely to indicate the truth as any 
which might be made. 

With regard to the fife of plows and minor equipment, no data are 
at hand and depreciation is charged arbitrarily at 10 per cent. Plow 
depreciation is of course wholly chargeable to plowing, but that of 
miscellaneous equipment, being due to practically equal use in plowing 
and thrashing, is charged equally to both. 

REPAIRS, OIL, ETC. 

As previously stated, the division of repairs may be made on the 
same basis as that of overhead charges. From such data as are at 
hand, together with estimates from men in a position to have con- 
siderable knowledge on this point, it is possible to arrive in two ways 
at the cost of repairs per acre plowed. The average cost of repairs 
per year is estimated by several authorities at $100, of which $75 
would be chargeable to plowing. Other authorities estimate the cost 
of engine repairs per acre at from 6 to 10 cents, and data from those 
operators who reported on this point indicate the latter figure as close 

170 



20 TRACTION PLOWING. 

to the average. It may be, however, that their figures covered the 
cost of repairs chargeable to thrashing and that an estimate of 10 
cents' per acre for engine repairs would probably cover the cost of 
keeping the majority of engines in good condition for work. Plow 
repairs are estimated at from 75 cents to $2 for each working day, 
including the expense of sharpening. The latter is much greater in 
the case of moldboard plows than with disk plows; hence, in esti- 
mating the cost of plowing, a larger figure per acre is allowed in the 
Northwest than in the Southwest. 

In addition to expenses for repairs, labor, fuel, etc., from 2 to 5 
cents per acre must be allowed for various lubricants, including crude 
oil for traction gearings, engine and cylinder oil, grease, and hard oil. 



From three to six men are needed in operating a steam-plowing 
outfit. One guides, and a second usually fires the engine. One of 
these frequently looks after the plows. A third man and team sup- 
pi}^ the engine with water and fuel, and two men with teams are 
needed if supplies are to be hauled any great distance. Frequently 
one man gives his entire time to the plows, while a cook is needed in 
many cases. The engineer is naturally the best paid, receiving, ac- 
cording to correspondents, an average of $3.12 per day in the south- 
west group of States, $4.43 in the northwest group, and $4.30 in 
California. The guider's wage is more uniform, averaging $1.88. 
The plowman and teamsters are paid from $1.50 to $1.75 in most 
cases, the former having a slight advantage, while $1 is the common 
figure for the cook. In many cases it would be economy to pay 
much higher wages for the engineer, at least, as good management 
and efficient help tend to reduce delays through accidents or other 
causes. Board at 50 cents a day for each man and 75 cents for the 
use and board of each horse are usually to be added to wages in arriv- 
ing at the labor cost. The majority of operators furnish board, many 
boarding but not paying the men on idle days. In estimating the 
labor cost per acre in this bulletin no account has been taken of wages, 
board, and keep of teams on idle days, but this amount, if it could be 
ascertained, should be added to the total. It is doubtful whether, 
on the average, steam-plowing outfits are able to work more than two 
days out of three during the plowing season, owing to accidents, 
moving, bad weather, and other causes. 

The average daily cost of fuel, as gathered from operators, is given 
elsewhere under estimates of the cost of plowing. The quantity and 
cost per acre vary with the locality, the kind and cost of fuel, the 
acreage plowed per day, the condition of the soil, the construction of 
the engine, the efficiency of the operator, and perhaps other factors. 

170 



PLOWING CAPACITY OF TRACTION OUTFITS. 21 

Coal is most used in steam tractors, thougli wood is used to a limited 
extent, and straw in some sections. ( Vude oil is used extensively in 
California. 

WATER. 

In steam plowing the quality and proximity of water are important 
factors. As the daily consumption ranges from 1,500 to 5,000 gallons, 
the labor involved is considerable, and is much increased with the 
hauling distance. Muddy or alkali water by depositing a sediment 
in the boiler reduces the evaporation per pound of coal consumed, 
necessitates frequent washing of the boiler, and causes rapid depre- 
ciation of the flues. Some boilers will evaporate a greater quantity 
of water per pound of fuel than others, thus producing steam more 
economically, but frequently the poor handling of an engine will 
cause the waste of a large quantity of water. From the averages 
shown in Table II on page 25 it will be seen that the water used per 
pound of coal is 7.49 pounds in the Southwest and 7.74 pounds in the 
Northwest. In California it is approximately 9.4 gallons of water 
per gallon of oil. 

PLOWING CAPACITY OF TRACTION OUTFITS. 

Certain factors governing the average acreage plowed daily or 
yearly have already been mentioned. This acreage is the output of 
the plowing equipment and crew, and in great measure it represents 
the success of the venture. It is the product of distance traveled in 
plowing and the width of the cut of the plows. The latter is gov- 
erned largely by the power of the engine and by the soil conditions, 
but the former is influenced by a multitude of circumstances. The 
reports from 220 operators indicate an average working day for steam 
outfits of 11.27 hours, and the various engines have speeds ranging 
from 2 to 3 miles an hour. The average cut of moldboard plows in 
the Northwest is ascertained to be 1 1 . 1 8 feet, and of disk plows in the 
Southwest 13.2 feet. At 2.5 miles an hour the theoretical daily 
capacity of moldboard plows would be about 38 acres, and of disks 
about 45 acres. The daily average for the Northwest, using mold- 
board plows almost exclusively, is approximately 22.9 acres, and for 
the Southwest, using disk plows principally, 25.7 acres; hence, the 
actual performance is much lower than the theoretical capacity of 
outfits. Much of this loss is unavoidable, due to slippage of traction 
wheels and to time spent in turning and in taking on supplies. In 
the latter operation alone the loss of time may easily reach 25 per 
cent. Observation of steam outfits in the field shows that the time 
spent in taking on supplies varies with the crew and amounts to from 
five to fifteen minutes out of each hour. The importance of getting 

170 



22 TRACTION PLOWING. 

the greatest service out of the equipment is not always appreciated, 
especially by hired crews. 

The tendency frequently is to atternpt to secure high acreage by 
running at a high speed or by overloading the engine. The latter 
evil is the more common, the temptation to add an extra plow or a 
load of harrows often being too strong to resist. The effects of 
exceeding the maximum durable speed or load are to be seen in 
increased wear and breakage, with consequent delay, which over- 
comes any advantage gained by crowding the outfit. The reports 
received from operators do not distinguish clearly as regards per- 
formance between sod breaking and stubble plowing. Taking the 
data as a whole, it is found that approximately two-thirds of all 
operators harrow, disk, or roll the ground while plowing. The per- 
centage is higher in the Southwest than in the Northwest, and in 
most cases somewhat greater power is used for tliis extra work, 
owing to the wider cut of plows. Of steam outfits 54 per cent and 
27 per cent of one make of gasoline outfits reporting from the North- 
west do other work while plowing, and 10 per cent and 3 per cent, 
respectively, of the total cost shown elsewhere may be charged to 
this extra work, basing the division on proportionate power con- 
sumption. Practically all these outfits use moldboard plows. The 
average nominal or tractive horsepower used in pulling plows onl}^ 
is 2.23 per foot cut for steam engines and 2.69 for gasohne engines. 
Therefore, 2.6 horsepower and 3.14 horsepower, nominal rating, are 
left, respectively, for each 14-inch plow bottom, after deducting the 
power used in pulling harrows, etc. In the Southwest 13 per cent 
of the power of the average steam outfit reported and 11 per cent 
of that of the average gasoline outfit reported are shown to be charge- 
able to work other than plowing. Of the steam outfits 70 per cent 
and of the gasoline outfits 80 per cent report extra work. After 
deducting the power thus consumed, 1.75 nominal horsepower per 
foot cut is expended by the steam outfits in pulhng plows and 2.22 
horsepower by gasoline outfits. This is based on the average width 
of furrow cut by the disk-plow outfits, as shown in Table II. From 
8 to 10 inches is the usual cut per disk. From this it would appear 
that two or more plows should be dropped if harrowing is done, 
depending on the draft of the extra load, and that 10 moldboard or 
15 to 20 disk plows are a load for the average steam engine, while 
the type of gasoline engine mentioned can handle fewer plows than 
steam engines of equal nominal rating. From 30 to 50 per cent more 
acres can usually be covered each dnj in stubble plowing than in 
breaking virgin sod, and the coal consumption to the acre averages 
less, though probably not in the same ratio. Sod breaking is usually 
shallower, and the heavier draft is overcome somewhat by the increased 
efliciency of the engine on the firm footing afforded by the sod. 

170 



INCOME FROM TRACTION-PLOWING OUTFITS. 



23 



In rusk seasons night plowing is occasionally resorted to, as well 
as the use of two shifts between early dawn and late twilight. The 
latter is the simpler and more satisfactory method, but the difficulty 
of securing two efficient crews and the division of responsibility for 
accidents tend in either case to offset the doubling of the capacity. 

Large daily acreages can not be secured in small fields, and few 
operators care to bother with jobs of less than 25 to 40 acres. Short 
furrows and frequent turns involve loss of time and a poorer quality 
of work. In fenced fields it is difficult to plow out corners by traction 
without special care and equipment, and frequently horses are em- 
ployed for this purpose. This and the expense attached to moving 
make small jobs unprofitable. Forethought in attacking fields will 
reduce the area left unplowed by traction, and the manufacturers 
usually offer suggestions as to time-saving methods of laying out 
lands. The yearly acreage is influenced by all the foregoing factors 
of daily operation, also by the seasonal conditions, delays from dis- 
abling accidents, the amount of work to be had, and competition. 

INCOME FROM TRACTION-PLOWING OUTFITS. 

The apparent profit in steam plowing is so great as to encourage 
the reckless buying of equipment. From 30 to 40 acres is not an 
uncommon day's work and the mere running expense is often below 
$20. At prices ranging from $1.50 to $4 to the acre the daily income 
is apparently much in excess of operating expense, the factors of 
interest, depreciation, expense during idleness, and cost of moving 
often being overlooked. Keen competition is developed in some 
communities and the rate for custom plowing reduced to the point 
where only the most successful can make a profit. A study of the 
data given later as to the acreage plowed annually will show that, 
except in California, where holdings are much larger, the custom 
acreage is nearly or more than equal to the area plowed for the owner 
of the outfit. It follows, then, that even with all other factors fav- 
orable, financial success is doubtful where the custom rate is low. 

The following table shows the range and average of custom prices, 
as reported by operators of both steam and gasoline outfits: 

Table I. — Prices charged for traction plouing in fifteen States andin Canada. 



Location of outfits. 


Number 
of opera- 
tors re- 
porting. 


Prices charged for plowing. 


Lowest. 


Highest. Average. 


Noith Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and Montana 

Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and New- 
Mexico. 


73 

116 



12 

23 


$1.25 

.75 
1.00 
1.25 
1.75 


$4.00 

3.50 
2.00 
1. GO 
5.00 


$2. 99 
1.88 


Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri 

California 


1.44 
1.32 


Canada . 


3.60 






170 











24 TRACTION PLOWING. 

The lowest figures are usually for stubble plowing and the highest 
for breaking sod, but the rates charged by the same operator for the 
two kinds of work are not as far apart as the range indicated. In 
])arts of Kansas a difference of only 25 cents an acre is made, and a 
difference of 50 cents is reported by more operators in both Plains 
sections than any other figure. A difference of $1 or more is, how- 
ever, common in the Northwest. In some cases these prices cover 
both plowing and harrowing, while in others from 10 to 25 cents an 
acre are added for harrowing. The prices in the corn belt and in 
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas (the average being $1.50 in Kansas 
and $1.62 for the three States) are so low as to leave little or no mar- 
gin to cover expenses during idleness and net a profit. With all other 
factors equal, a slight increase in the rate will often turn an unsuc- 
cessful venture into a profitable one. 

AVERAGE RESULTS WITH STEAM-PLOWING OUTFITS. 

In view of the extreme variation in conditions encountered by indi- 
vidual operators, any averages of results must be taken with due 
regard for local conditions. The following table presents a summary 
of the data taken from reports complete enough to give the desired 
information. These include results for a part of the season of 1908. 
For the purpose of comparison, two columns are shown for Canada. 
The first is from direct reports from operators. In the second col- 
umn averages are taken from the annual traction-plowing numbers of 
"The Canadian Thresherman and Farmer," from 1905 to 1909, 
inclusive, and represent 214 letters of steam plowmen in answer to 
that journal's annual circular letters on this subject. A small per- 
centage of the letters are dviplicated; that is, they are from the same 
operator in different years, and several correspondents reporting un- 
der column 1 are also found under column 2. The average of coal 
used given in column 2 is from 150 operators, many using either 
wood or straw or not reporting at all. Those using wood report 
about 2 cords a day as an average. The average number of barrels 
of water used by Canadian operators apparently varies greatly. 
However, a difference in standards may explain the variation. If 
the 72.8 barrels in column 1 were of 31.5 imperial gallons of 10 
])ounds each and the 57.1 barrels in column 2 were of 42 imperial 
gallons the water used per pound of coal would be 7.21 and 7.82 
pounds, respectively. It is difficult otherwise to account for such a 
wide variation. 

170 



COST OF PLOWING WITH STEAM ENGINES. 



25 



Tablk II. — Data in refirence to steain-plowing outft^ operated in California, in the 
southwestern and the northwestern sections of the United States, and in Canada. 



Work accomplished, etc. 



Number reporting 

Acres plowed annually for self 

Acres plowed annually for others. . . 

Acres plowed annually, total 

Percentage of custom "plowing 

Size of engine (horsepower) 

Cost of engine 

Number of plows 6 

Width of furrow cut (feet) b 

Cost of plows b 

Hours of work each day 

Miles covered each day c 

Acres covered each day 

Days of plowing for the year 

Men employed 

Horses used 

Labor and board (by day) 

Quantity of fuel used each dayd 

(Quantity of fuel used for each acred 

Cost of fuel for each day 

Cost of fuel for each acre 

Quantity of water used each day «. . 
Cost of oil, etc., for each day 



Cali- 
fornia. 


South- 
west. 


North- 
west. 


Cana 


1. 


11 


100 


60 


23 


2,800 


475 


310 


379 


689 

j 3,489 

20 

alio 


580 

1,055 

55 

26. 46 


348 

658 

53 

27.5 


628 

1,007 

61 

29 


' $5,500 


$2,680 


.$2,505 


.$3,420 


23.3 
20.45 




9.58 
11.18 


11 
12.83 


12.8 


$506 


$451 


$657 


$860 


10.6 


11 


11.44 


12.31 


20.4 


16.4 


16.9 


13.8 


50.6 


25.7 


22.9 


21.4 


69 


41 


29 


47 





3.43 


4.24 


4.11 


5.5 


3.1 


4.5 


3.9 


$16. 50 


$11 


$14 


$14 


7.16 


2,508 


2,735 


3,151 


0.14 


98.4 


126. 6 


147.4 


$7.28 


$6.91 


.$8. 71 


$8.34 


50. 144 


$0. 273 


$0.38 


$0.39 


3,367 


74.1 


77.75 


72.8 


$1.00 


$0.57 


$0.59 


.$0. 87 



8.6 
10.03 



16.75 
20.37 



4.46 
3.36 



3.064 
150.4 



n Brake horsepower. Nominal or tractive rating about 60 horsepower. 

b Less than one-fifth of the outfits reported in the Southwest use moldboard plows. These average 9.18 
bottoms, cutting 10.7 feet, and cost $.561 each. From 10 to 20 disk plows would be used to cut the average 
of 13.2 feet reported. These sets average $428 in price. The figures in the table are for the average of both 
types. 

c "Miles a day" is miles traveled with plows in the ground, as figured from the daily acreage and the 
average width of the furrow. The distance traveled in turning, etc., is not included. 

d For California expressed in barrels of crude oil; elsewhere in pounds of coal. 

f For California expressed in gallons; elsewhere in the United States in barrels of 31.5 gallons. 

The data for 1907 and 1908 under column 2 are much nearer the 
figures contained in first-hand reports from the Northwest and Canada, 
as is to be expected in view of the time covered by the latter. For 
these two years the averages of data contained in 118 letters show 
the size of the engine to be 27.7 horsepower; number of plow^s, 9.09; 
width of furrow, 10.6 feet; miles a day, 16.75; acres a day, 21.52; 
number of men, 4.53; number of horses, 3.57; quantity of coal a day, 
3,245 pounds; c[uantity of coal for each acre, 150.8 pounds. 



COST OF PLOWING WITH STEAM ENGINES. 

In the folloAving table the acre cost of plowing is based on the data 
in Table II. A considerable number of other operators were inter- 
viewed, but principally with regard to points not covered in the cir- 
cular letters, their experience and results being on a par with those 
of the correspondents. It was found impracticable to separate the 
cost of harrowing in each report; hence, the corrected total for 
plowing alone is basetl on the percentages given under the discussion 
of acreage plowed on J^age 22. 

170 



26 



TRACTION PLOWING. 



Table III. — Acre cost of steayn plowing (including harrowing, etc.) in California, i"?i the 
southwestern and the northwestern sections of the United States, and in Canada. 



Details of cost. 



Cali- 
fornia. 



Interest on engine $0. 069 

Depreciation on engine .158 

Repairs on engine .08 

Interest on plows 

Depreciation on plows 

Repairs on plows 

Interest and depreciation on miscellaneous equipment 

Labor and board 

Fuel 

Oil, grease, etc .1. 



Total. 



Corrected total. 



.009 

.015 

.02 

.012 

.326 

.144 

.02 



.853 



South- 
west. 



$0. 098 
.254 
.10 
.024 
.043 
.035 
.037 
.428 
.269 
.022 



1.31 



North- 
west. 



$0. 143 
.381 
.10 
.056 
.10 
.066 
.059 
.611 
.38 
.026 



1.922 



Canada. 



SO. 131 
.34 
.10 
.048 
. C85 
.07 
.039 
.654 
.39 
.041 

1.89S 



The cost of men and teams on off days and of moving from place 
to place between jobs must be added to the cost per acre of plowing. 
This wilL frequently more than offset the correction for harrowing, 
the cost for each day of idleness being higher, of course, with steam 
than with gasoline outfits. The days of idleness are more frequent, 
possibly one in three, adding 10 to 15 cents per acre to the cost given. 
Since both breaking and stubble plowing are included, and in un- 
known proportions, no satisfactory statement can be made as to the 
relative cost of each. However, the daily running expenses are not 
essentially different; hence the relative cost is probably in inverse 
proportion to the daily acreage. 

COMPARATIVE RESULTS WITH STEAM ENGINES OF DIFFERENT 

SIZES. 

The following table shows fairly well what may be expected of 
steam engines of the small, medium, and large sizes generally used 
for plowing. Extremes are not represented. It will be noted that in 
the Southwest the medium-sized engines seem to be the most popu- 
lar, and those of the largest size in the Northwest, while few small 
engines are used in either section. With the exception of the quantity 
of coal per acre in the case of small engines in the Northwest, the 
averages show the results that might be expected from the size of the 
engine, and in this case the number of operators is so small as to ren- 
der the figures of little value. The number of men and horses evi- 
dently is not in proportion to the size of the engine. In both sections 
the small engines apparently travel more miles a day than the larger 
ones, this figure, as before, being calculated from the acreage plowed 
and the width of furrow. The figures as to horsepower per foot cut 
and the reciprocal "feet cut per horsepower" are quite significant, 
indicating that the larger engines furnish greater power per unit of 
nominal rating than the smaller. A comparison of sections on this 

170 



CABLE SYSTEM OF STEAM PLOWING. 



27 



point shows that from 20 to 25 per cent more power per foot of witlth 
is required in the Northwest than in the Southwest. The wider use 
of disk plows will account for a large part of this difference. 

Table IV. — Comparison of various sizes of steam- plowing engines used in the south- 
western and the northwestern sections of the United States and in Canada. 



Details for steam outfits. 



Number of outfits 

Average size of engine 

Width of furrow (feet) 

Width of furrow (inches) 

Men employed 

Horses used 

Acres covered each day 

Miles covered each day 

Horsepower per foot cut 

Feet cut per horsepower 

I'ounds of coal used each day 

founds of coal used for each acre. 



Southwest. 



Northwest and Canada. 



18, 20, 
and 22 
horse- 
power. 



10 

20.2 

9.15 

109.8 

3.6 

3.4 

20.5 

18.5 

2.21 

.452 

2,350 

114.6 



25 horse- 
power. 



42 
25 

12. 25 

147 

3.43 

3.05 

23.2 

15.6 

2.04 

.49 

,457 

105.9 



30,32, 


18,20, 


and 35 


and 22 


horse- 


horse- 


power. 


power. 


22 


5 


31.95 


20.4 


16. 67 


7.5 


192 


90 


3.76 


3.8 


3.3 


2.6 


33. 4 


16.8 


16. 5 


18.5 


1.92 


2. 72 


.521 


.368 


3,218 


1,780 


96.3 


100 



25 horse- 
power. 



30, 32, 
and 35 
horse- 
power. 



21 
25 

10.23 
122. 8 
3.95 
2.95 
19.6 
15.8 
2.44 
.409 
,552 
130.2 



41 

31. 

13. 

158. 

4. 

3. 



3,100 
122. 



.42 
.413 



CABLE SYSTEM OF STEAM PLOWING. 

In England, Germany, and other countries a common t3^pe of 
steam plowing involves the use of plows or other implements drawn 
by cables. A number of these outfits, all of foreign make, are used 
in various parts of the West, principall}^ in California, and there 
chiefly on large sugar-beet ranches. So far as known, all of these 
outfits are of the double-engine type, a traction engine being located 
during operation at either side of the field. Steel cables, 80 to 100 
rods long, attached to the implement, are wound on drums mounted 
beneath the engine boilers, the engines pulling alternately. In this 
way the entire power of the engines is available for work, none being 
used in moving their own weight across the fields. The engines ad- 
vance alternately the width of the furrow, moving in parallel direc- 
tions at right angles to the furrow. In many cases permanent roads 
along the sides of the fields insure a firm footing for the traction wheels. 
Balance plows are used, i. e., right and left hand moldboard plows 
are mounted in gangs facing a pair of large wheels. In plowing, the 
implement is not reversed, the forward gang being tilted out of the 
ground on one trip and plowing on the return. Frames to which 
harrows, rollers, etc., may be attached, cultivators, beet plows, and 
other implements for cultivation are a part of the equipment, and 
usually all tillage operations connected with the beet crop are accom- 
plished without the use of animals. 

Plowing is done at a depth of 12 to 14 inches for sugar beets, and 
in heavy adobe soil from 10 to 20 acres are covered per day. Light 

170 



28 TRACTION PLOWING. 

cultivation is done at a depth of 7 to 9 inches and deep tillage at from 
14 to 16 inches, the cultivators being 16 feet and 10 feet in width, 
respectively. Cultivating is done at the rate of 25 to 35 acres and 
harrowing at the rate of 50 acres a day. A special implement, lifting 
6 rows of beets at a depth of 12 to 16 inches, is used in harvesting, 
and from 15 to 25 acres are covered in a day when necessary. No 
time is lost in taking supplies, as the engines are stationary, and 
little time is wasted at the ends of the furrows, one engine being 
ready to start pulling as soon as the other finishes. 

From five to eight men are used in plowing, including a foreman, 
two engineers, one or two teamsters, two plowmen, and a cook. 
From 6 to 8 barrels of crude oil daily supply both engines. The 
expenses, not including interest and depreciation, are about $30 a 
day, or from $2 to $3 an acre. In comparing this with the cost of 
operating direct traction outfits, the great difference in depth of 
plowing must be kept in mind. Interest and depreciation charges 
are heavy, though the outfits are in use the greater part of the year. 
The investment for each outfit, including freight and duty, is from 
$25,000 to $30,000. The cables, which cost from $600 to $900 each, 
last from six to eighteen months in continuous use, and bad water 
destroys flues in from six to twelve months; otherwise the outfits 
are capable of long service. 

In view of the heavy initial and operating cost, the use of this 
equipment is restricted to large enterprises. One ranch in California 
uses five sets of tackle in handling 10,000 acres of sugar beets, using 
horses only in seeding and hauling. Each outfit is said to displace 
120 horses and the necessary drivers. Another outfit, operating 
eleven months in the year, handles 1,300 acres of beets. Others are 
to be found in large vineyards, while a large number are used in 
sugar-cane culture in Hawaii. While these outfits are not suitable 
for use on a small scale it would seem that a modification, embodying 
numerous advantages and adapted to more general use, might be 
produced in the United States and sold at a price witliin the reach 
of small operators. 

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES. 

Internal-combustion engines, represented by gasoline and kerosene 
motors, are usually of smaller size than the steam engines used for 
plowing. They range from 12 to 40 horsepower, nominal rating, 
and from 19 to 80 horsepower, brake rating. As before explained, 
the nominal rating is supposed to denote the equivalent of the work 
of the number of horses specified which is performed by the engine, 
while the brake rating indicates the power of the engine for belt 
work. In size internal-combustion engines range from a weight of 

170 



INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES. 29 

a little more than 2 tons to 17 or 18 tons, although the majority in 
use are between 5 and 10 tons. As a rule, they are rated higher in 
proportion to actual brake horsepower than are steam engines, but 
have a higher tractive efficiency than the latter; that is, deliver a 
larger proportion of the total power in effective pull. The same 
confusion as to rating prevails and, owing to the differences in the 
practice of various manufacturers, gasoline engines are frequenth^ 
expected to do more than their actual horsepower warrants. In 
price these motors are usually more expensive per brake horsepower 
than steam engines, the types most used ranging in cost from $1,300 
to $2,500 delivered free in territory within reasonable distance from 
the factories. 

Gasoline engines, using this term to designate all of the oil-burning 
internal-combustion class, present a great variation in type, having 
so recently been developed as to lack the standardization possessed 
by steam traction engines. - The four-cycle motor is universally 
used." Most of the smaller tractors are .of the single-cylinder type, 
which is the most economical of fuel but not so steady in running as 
multiple-cylinder types, on account of the longer interval between 
power strokes. On account of the limitations to the size of cylin- 
ders this type must necessarily continue to be made in small units, 
the more powerful tractors now on the market using two, three, or 
four cylinders. These may be either vertical or horizontal, and if 
horizontal either 'Uwin" or ''opposed," i. e., either side by side or in 
line on opposite sides of the crank shaft. The larger the number of 
cylinders the more complicated the motor, but usually the more 
smooth running, owing to the more nearly continuous succession of 
power strokes. Two opposed pistons in a single cylinder are used 
on one type. The variation in engine speed is considerable, ranging 
from 220 to 1,600 revolutions a minute, but as a rule not over 550 
revolutions are made at normal speed. Differences in the method 
of governing, ignition, reversing, and cooling are notable, the latter 
including air, water, oil, and steam cooling devices. Practically 
all tractors are gear driven, but great variation as to the height and 
width of traction wheels is found. 

A few types are equipped for burning either gasoline, kerosene, or 
distillate (low-grade kerosene), although no motor has as yet been 
developed which will handle the different fuels equally well under 
all conditions. Distillate is largely used on the Pacific coast, but is 
not easily obtainable in other sections. Kerosene is used to a great 
extent in at least one of the leading plowing tractors. Both kerosene 
and distillate are cheaper by the gallon than gasoline, and reports 
from correspondents indicate that the fuel cost per acre is less also. 

a For an exposition of a four-cycle motor, see Farmers' Bulletin 277. 
170 



30 TRACTION PLOWING. 

Alcohol is not as yet a commercially important fuel for traction en- 
gines. Opinion as to the relative merits of kerosene and gasoline is 
divided. The former may be used successfully where the engine is 
operating under a full and rather constant load, as in plowing, but 
owing to iis heterogeneous composition it does not give such perfect 
combustion under varying conditions as does gasoline. As a rule, 
from 1 to 2 gallons of the latter are used per day for starting and 
warming up the kerosene motors; hence its use is seldom entirely 
dispensed with. The rapid development of internal-combustion en- 
gines for marine, automobile, traction, and stationary purposes has 
increased the demand for gasoline and the rate of exhaustion of the 
supply, so that it seems only a question of time when the less volatile 
oils will of necessity be used extensivel}'^ in tractors. For the pres- 
ent, however, gasoline remains the standard fuel and the majority of 
new tractors are being designed primarily with a view to its use. 

COST OF PLOWING WITH GASOLINE ENGINES. 

As is the case with steam engines, the ])ractice of using gasoline 
motors for plowing is so new that satisfactory figures regarding life, 
repairs, etc., are not to be had. It follows, therefore, that figures on 
the cost of plowing are not conclusive except as regards the expenses 
which may be designated as current. The first successful gasoline 
tractors were put on the market about 1903, and comparativel}^ few 
have been out long enough for operators to become thoroughly 
familiar with what may be expected of them, yet the figures given 
in the following pages may be taken as indicative of their practica- 
bility. 

With regard to the factors of interest and depreciation the same 
general points will apply to gasoline as to steam engines. It is 
doubtful whether the comparative wear in plowing and thrashing 
will be in the same proportion as with steam engines, as the gasoline 
engines are less likely to be overloaded in plowing. Gasoline engines 
when first developed were stationary and could be rated on the same 
basis as stationary steam engines or in comparison with horses on a 
small horsepower. Later on, some of these same engines were 
mounted on traction trucks and given the same rating as before. 
This naturally confused purchasers, who expected these engines to 
draw the same load as steam engines of equal rating. Serious dis- 
appointment to the users and damage to the tractors were the result. 
A few makes of gasoline tractors were given a nominal rating, based 
on the number of horses which they would equal in effective pull, 
though the various manufacturers took different bases for their 
ratings. Operators soon found that gasoline tractors could not be 
forced beyond the maximum of power developed at the time of 

170 



COST OF PLOWING WITH GASOLINE ENGINES. 31 

explosion, and were not to be relied upon for getting out of serious 
difficulty when already pulling a full load. On this account it is 
probable that gasoline engines as a whole pull loads more suited to 
their normal and durable power than do steam engines. On the 
other hand, owing to the smaller margin of brake horsepower over and 
above the nominal rating, they are more likely to be crowded to their 
limit in running separators or other machines driven by belt power. 
A leading manufacturer of gasoline engines estimates the wear -and 
tear at 70 and 30 per cent, respectively, for plowing and thrashing, 
when given equal length of service. Other authorities who have 
given thought to this point are of the opinion that, with the exception 
of such makes as have a low nominal rating in proportion to actual 
horsepower, gasoline engines as a class will be worn almost equally 
by plowing and thrashing. Taking the whole class of gasoline tract- 
ors, it is probabl that a division of wear and tear and interest on 
the basis of 60 and 40 per cent for the two operations will be as accu- 
rate as can be assumed at this time. 

The life of gasoline tractors will at present depend very largely upon 
the make, owing to the large number of experimental machines which 
are being offered. However, since the data contained in this bulletin 
are taken only from those makes of tractors which have demon- 
strated for several seasons their practicability in the hands of a num- 
ber of operators, the assumptions made in connection with the life 
and service of steam engines may be repeated here and the same 
rate of interest and depreciation taken. Estimates from a number 
of operators of the internal-combustion tractor now in most common 
use place the life of the outfit at ten years, and although this is prob- 
ably in excess of the actual service the exact figures can not be de- 
termined, as practically none of the standard outfits have been 
abandoned on account of wearing out. 

Repairs to engines are estimated at 10 cents an acre and $100 a 
year, respectively, by two officials of the company making the 
tractor just mentioned, these amounts being deemed ample to keep 
all parts in perfect order and recommended as being economical ex- 
penditures on the part of the purchaser. The former figure supports 
the estimates of several correspondents and may in this case be fairly 
assumed as correct. The plows used are of the same type as those 
employed with steam engines, though of course fewer in number, 
and the plow repairs will be proportionately less. The cost of mis- 
cellaneous equipment will usually be covered by $100, as provision 
must be made for but two men and the transportation of a compara- 
tively small quantity of fuel and water. 

The labor cost of operating gasoline outfits is usually limited to 
the wages and keep of two men, one for the engine and one for the 

170 



32 



TKACTION PLOWING. 



plows. This is true regardless of the size or make of the tractor. 
Horses are used but a few hours a week, if at all. In many sections 
gasoline is delivered in the field by the dealer, horses thus being dis- 
pensed with entirely. Licensed engineers are not usually required 
with gasoline outfits, and consequently the labor rate is usually lower 
than with steam outfits. The cost of maintenance is of course less, 
and $7 a day for the wages and board of the two men required will 
probably cover all but a very few cases. The figure allowed for labor 
includes the wages of a first-class engineer, as, notwithstanding the 
simplicity of gasoline engines, skilled labor is as essential to the best 
results as with steam engines. Board is allowed at the rate of $1 
per day, and a small charge for the occasional use of a team may 
easily be covered by the figure given for labor cost. The other items 
of cost as figured from the reports of twenty-six correspondents 
using one of the leading plowing tractors are given in the following 
table of averages. The column headed "Canada" includes reports 
from eleven Canadian operators of this same tractor, published by 
"The Canadian Thresherman and Farmer" in its annual plowing 
numbers from 1905 to 1909, inclusive. 

Table V. — Data in reference to gasoline-plowing outfits operated in the sovthwestern 
and the northwestern sections of the United States and in Canada. 



Work accomplished, etc. 



Number of outfits 

Acres plowed annually for self 

Acres plowed annually for others 

Acres plowed annually, total 

Percentage of custom plowing 

Size of engine (horsepower) 

Cost of engine 

Number of plows used b 

Width of furrow cut (feet) b 

Cost of plows 

Hours of work each day 

Miles covered each day 

Acres covered each day 

Days of plowing for the year 

Men employed c_ 

Labor and board (by day)c 

Quantity of fuel used each day (gallons) 

Quantity of fuel used for each acre (gallons) 

Cost of fuel for each day 

Cost of fuel for each acre 

Cost of fuel (gallon) 

Cost of oil for each day 



Southwest. 



10 

479 

362 

841 

43 

22 

$2,254 

12 

8.83 

$347 

10.1 

17 

17.4 

48 

2 

$7 

53.6 

.3.08 

$5.26 

$0. 302 

$0. 098 

$0,505 



North- 
west. 



11 

335 

300 

635 

47 

22 

$2,300 

6.77 

7.9 

$244 

10.55 

18.25 

17.5 

36 

2 

$7 

49.4 

2.8 

$7.31 

$0,418 

$0. 147 

$0,462 



Canada. 



22 
7.93 



16.8 
16.1 



dSO 
d3.1 



Alloutflts.a 



26 

399 

316 

715 

44 

22 

$2,300 



8.18 

$294 

10.23 

17 

16.94 

42 

2 

$7 

49.2 

2.9 

$6.27 

$0.37 

$0. 1275 

$0. 487 



a Data from correspondents only, including several scattered outside of the two principal sections. 

b The figures for the Northwest are for moldboard plows and for the Southwest for disk plows ; the average 
of all outfits includes both. 

c Two men were reported in all but a few cases, and this number was recommended as a most satisfactory 
crew. No horses are included, as the reports indicate their use for only a few hours each week, if at all . 

d United States gallons. 

170 



COST OF PLOWING WITH GASOLINE ENGINES. 



S3 



The following table, showing in detail the estimated cost of plowing 
with gasoline tractors, is based upon the foregoing averages and 
assumptions and should be analyzed rather than taken as a whole. 
Harrowing or similar work is included in 27 per cent of the cases in 
the Northwest and in 80 per cent in the Southwest. 

Table YI.—Acre cost of plowing with gasoline engines {including some harromng) in the 
southwestern and the northirestern sections of the United States. 



Details of cost. 



South- 
west. 



North- 
west. 



All 
outfits. 



Interest on engine 

Depreciation on engine 

Repairs on engine 

Interest on plows 

Depreciation on plows 

Repairs on plows 

Interest and depreciation on miscellaneous equipment 

Labor and board 

Fuel, usually kerosene 

Oil, etc 

Total 



$0. 103 
.214 
.10 
.023 
.041 
.034 
.009 
.402 
.302 
.029 



$0. 139 
.29 
.10 
.022 
.038 
.057 
.012 
.40 
.418 
.026 



1.257 



1.502 



SO. 124 
.257 
.10 
.023 
.041 
.041 
.011 
.413 
.370 
.029 



1.409 



As in the case of steam outfits, a portion of this average cost, 
based on the horsepower estimated to have been consumed, is charge- 
able to harrowing and other operations. This is ascertained to be 
3 per cent in the Northwest and 1 1 per cent in the Southwest ; conse- 
quently, the corrected acre cost of plowing only should be $1,457 and 
$1,119, respectively. However, no charge for the labor and cost of 
moving has been included, nor for labor on days when owing to bad 
weather or breakage no plowing was done. In most cases the crew 
of two men of a gasoline outfit could more easily find employment 
elsewhere during unfavorable weather than the larger crew of a 
steam outfit, and, as has been pointed out, fewer idle days from this 
cause are the rule, owing to the Hghter weight of the engine. Perhaps 
one day in four would be a fair estimate of time lost from all causes. 
If the expenses of a 5-mile move, together with the board and a half 
day's wages of the two men, are allowed on each idle day, the extra 
expense to be borne by each day of productive labor would be from 
$1.75 to $2, or from 10 to 13 cents an acre, thus offsetting the reduc- 
tion for harrowing. 

The following table includes data furnished by operators in the 
Northwest on three types of gasoline tractors, distinguishing between 
breaking sod and plowing stubble as regards fuel consumption and 
acreage per day. In the case of the two-cylinder tractor the mean 
between breaking and plowing is given for the purpose of comparison 
with the figures presented in Table V. 

170 



34 



TRACTION PLOWING. 



Table VII. — Comparative perforntance of gasoline tractors in breaking and plowing in 
the northwestern section of the United States. 



Details of cost etc. 


Two cylinder, 22 horsepower.a 


Four cylinder, 30 
horsepower. 6 


One cylinder, 20 
horsepower, c 




Breaking. 


Plowing. 


Mean. 


Breaking. 


Plowing. 


Breaking. 


Plowing. 


Gallons of fuel used each day. . . 
Gallons of iuel used for each acre. 
Average price of fuel (gallon) . . . 

Cost of fuel for each day 

Cost of fuel for each acre 

Cost of labor for each day 

Cos t f labor for each acre 

Cost of labor and fuel for each 


51 

3.32 

$0. 151 

$7.72 

$0. 512 

$7 

$0,465 

$0,977 


51 

2.26 

$0. 141 

$7.20 

$0. 318 

$7 

$0.31 

$0. 628 


51 
2.79 
$0. 146 
$7.46 
$0. 415 
$7 
$0. 388 

$0,803 


45.1 

3.42 

$0.16 

$7.24 

$0. 548 

$7 

$0.53 

$1,078 
$0.06 
5.63 
6.57 
4.57 
13.2 
16.6 


43 
2.29 
$0.16 

$6.87 

$0. 366 

$7 

$0. 372 

$0. 738 
$0,043 
8.1 
9.45 
3.17 
18.8 
16.4 


24.2 

2.28 

$0.16 

$3.87 

$0,365 

$7 

$0.66 

$1,025 


26.8 

1.94 

$0.16 

$4.28 
.$0. 31 

$7 
$0. 507 

$0. 817 


Cost of oil for each acre 


Number of plows used 








4.25 
4.96 
4.03 
10.6 
17.6 


6 


Width of furrow cut (feet) 

Horsepower per foot cut 


6.52 
3.37 
15.06 
19.05 


10.14 
2.17 
22.60 
18.60 


8.33 
2.77 
18.83 
18.83 


7 
2.86 
13 8 


Miles covered each day . . 


16 3 







a Number of reports received, 9. f> Number of reports received, 15. <^ Number of reports received, 10. 

The two-cylinder tractor is frequently operated with kerosene, and 
hence shows a lower "average price per gallon of fuel. Labor is as- 
sumed at the rate of $7 a day, although this is in excess of the aver- 
age reported by the majority of operators. It will be noted that the 
acreage in plowing is 150, 142, and 130 per cent, respectively, of that 
in breaking, while miles a day and the daily consumption of fuel are 
practically the same. The labor cost would remain the same for 
both kinds of work, and since the engine is usually loaded approxi- 
mately the same in either case the daily figures for interest and for 
wear and tear would remain stationary. The variation in plow cost 
is so slight that- for practical purposes the comparative cost of break- 
ing and plowing can be considered as in inverse ratio to the width 
of furrow cut. Taking 1.4 as the ratio between the acreage in plow- 
ing and that in breaking, and assuming the daily expense to be the 
same in both cases, the figures shown in Table VI would indicate that 
without harrows attached the outfits in the Northwest break prairie 
at a cost of $1.70 an acre and plow in stubble at $1,214, while those 
in the Southwest accomplish the work at rates of $1,466 and $1.05 
an acre, respectively. 

COST OF PLOWING WITH HORSES. 

The cost of plowing with horses under conditions obtaining on 
three groups of farms in southeastern, southwestern, and north- 
western Minnesota, averaging, respectively, 166.9, 297.06, and 378.26 
acres, is published in Bulletin No. 73, Bureau of Statistics, United 
States Department of Agriculture; also the cost on a single farm of 
1,820 acres in northwestern Minnesota, the data from which are not 
included in other averages. The figures cover a period of six years, 

170 



COST or PLOWING WITH HORSES. 



35 



from 1902 to 1907, inclusive, and a cultivated acreage of approxi- 
mately 5,000 acres a year. The average annual cost of keeping a 
work horse in the grain-growing section is ascertained to be S65.23 
on the large farm mentioned and S75.07 on small farms averaging 
378 acres each. The cost per hour of horse labor for all sections is as 
follows: Southeastern farms, 9.25 cents; southwestern, 8.36 cents; 
northwestern, 7.32 cents; on the large farm, 7.46 cents. The aver- 
age annual cost given is divided by the average number of hours' 
work done annually by each horse and includes the following items: 
Interest on investment, depreciation, harness depreciation, shoeing, 
feed, labor, and miscellaneous expenses. On the smaller farms in the 
northwestern section each horse worked on an average only 3.14 
hours per workday throughout the six-year period, and on the large 
farm somewhat less. The bulletin says: 

In order to have motive power available at seed time and harvest, the farmer is 
obliged to feed and house horses through seasons of practical idleness. The average 
annual cost of maintaining a farm work horse is approximately $80, and for this cost 
of maintenance the animal gives a return in work of about three hours a day through- 
out the year. 

The cost of man labor is ascertained in the same detailed manner, 
the hours of both man and horse labor being a matter of daily record. 
The cash and labor repairs on plows are matters of careful record, 
and interest and depreciation are based on annual inventories. Since 
conditions in the northwestern part of Minnesota are like those of the 
grain-growing sections of the Dakotas, and especially the Red River 
Valley, the figures for this section are of more value in this connection 
than those from the southern part of the State. Including charges 
for man and horse labor and for plow values consumed, the cost of 
horse plowing in stubble land is stated in the bulletin to be as 
follows : "■ 





Fall plowing. 


Spring plowing. 


Location of farms. 


Total 

acres. 

5 years. 


Labor 
cost. 


Plow 
cost. 


Total 
cost. 


Total 
acres. 
5 years. 


Labor 
cost. 


Plow 
cost. 


Total 
cost. 


Southeastern Minnesota 


4,773.4 
5, 973. 6 
7,186.0 
5, 363. 5 


$1,256 

1.141 

1.130 

.924 


$0. 086 
.132 
.078 
.061 


$1. 342 
1.273 
1.208 
.985 


803.3 

1,413.2 

925.9 

526.0 


$1,311 

1.171 

1.186 

.973 


$0,086 
.132 
.078 
.061 


$1 397 


Southwestern Minnesota 


1.303 


Northwestern Minnesota. 


1 264 


Large farm, Minnesota 


1 034 







The average cost per acre of 23,296^ acres of fall plowing was 
$1,201; of 3,668f acres of spring plowing, S1.258; and of 26,966 
acres of both fall and spring plowing, $1,209 an acre. 

a See Tables XXXIX and XI, Bulletin 73, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of 

Agriculture. 
170 



36 TKACTION PLOWING. 

In the northwestern group of farms 72.53 acres were broken by 
horses at a cost of $106.60 for labor. By adding the plow cost, the 
total is found to be $1,546 per acre. An earlier bulletin** dealing 
with this same investigation shows the cost of man and horse labor 
in breaking a small acreage in southwestern Minnesota in 1902, 1903, 
and 1904, to be $2.18 per acre, and the average labor cost in breaking 
tame sod to be $1.67 in southeastern and $1.42 in northwestern 
Minnesota, respectively. An average plow cost of 6| cents per acre 
should be added to these figures in comparing them with the cost 
shown for traction plowing. Gang plows and other large machinery 
are not used to any extent in the southeastern group of farms. On 
the large grain farm in the northwestern section the use of gang 
plows in large fields free from stone is shown in the reduced cost of 
plowing, even though the rate per hour of horse labor is higher than 
on smaller farms in the same neighborhood. Leaving out the plow 
cost, which is much greater in the case of engine gang plows, the 
showing is more favorable to the tractors as a source of motive power. 
The average cost of horse plowing will be reduced by 83% cents and 
of traction plowing from 12 cents for gasoline to 20 cents for steam 
by not considering the plow costs. The housing of the horses and 
tractors has not been considered in any of the foregoing figures, and 
of course this would be much cheaper in the case of tractors. Trac- 
tion plowing, especially with gasoline engines, can apparently be 
made to approach the cost of plowing with horses if done on a large 
scale, but too much reliance can not be placed on the figures assumed 
for the depreciation of outfits. As before explained, it is impossible 
to present dependable averages for depreciation, owing to the recent 
development of the industry. On the whole it can hardly be said 
that traction plowing is cheaper than horse plowing, especially where 
horse gang plows are used, though it may be made so under favorable 
circumstances. 

PRACTICABILITY OF TRACTION PLOWING. 

No general statement as to the practicability of traction plowing 
can be made, as the factors involved are too many and too varied to 
admit of general conclusions, even for a single locality. Any one of 
the factors previously discussed may determine the success of failure 
of an outfit. Many localities are generally unsuited to the practice, 
but a few operators may have remarkable success because of favorable 
environment or unusual ability. If season, soil, and topography are 
favorable and fuel and water are convenient it becomes largely an 
individual problem. The size and cost of equipment, the acreage to 

a Bulletin 48, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, and Bulletin 97, 
Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. 
170 



PRACTICABILITY OF TKACTION PLOWING. 37 

be plowed, the cost of operation, the competition encountered, and 
the energy and ability of the operator are all important factors 
materially affecting any conclusions which may be drawn from 
averages. 

Two widely varying points of view are encountered with regard to 
the practicability of traction plowing under any given conditions, 
namely, that of the landowners and that of the custom operators. 
The former have an interest in the crop beyond the mere cost of 
plowing the ground in preparation for it, and it is safe to say that the 
majority of these have decided the question on the basis of net 
returns. In many cases it was found that approximately half the 
number of horses kept before the purchase of a tractor were still 
required for such operations as drilling, harvesting, and hauling. 
Though in such cases the use of the engine was limited to from forty 
to eighty days of plowing and thrashing and the value of the horses 
displaced would seldom equal more than two-thirds the cost of the 
engine, the consensus of opinion was that the availability of power at 
the time when it was imperatively needed justified the added invest- 
ment and cost of operation. Handling a large acreage and getting 
work done at any cost were first considerations with many owners of 
large farms, and practicability in such cases is not determined by 
comparisons with the cost of operation by horses, even though this is 
undoubtedly larger in newer sections than in those for which figures 
are quoted. The common rate for horse plowing in the older sections 
of the Dakotas is $1.50 per acre, but during rush seasons the figure has 
no significance, as little or no horseflesh is to be hired at such times. 

For the improvement of raw land by breaking, traction outfits 
probably have an advantage over horses in cost of operation. Even 
if this were not so, the increase in value of the land due to breaking 
and seeding is sufficient to pay a handsome profit on every acre 
turned, and owners have taken advantage of this to an amazing 
extent. One quarter section in South Dakota, for instance, is said to 
have been broken this year in twenty-two hours, three steam outfits 
working continuously in order to accomplish the feat. A six-horse 
team with an ordinary gang plow would have required practically a 
month, Sundays included, to do the same work. After land is once 
broken, however, many owners consider it cheaper to plow with 
horses, and until the introduction of the small general-purpose 
motors traction-plowing outfits were most popular in newly developed 
areas. The cost of both horse and traction plowing will vary widely, 
and the averages presented do not represent the extreme possibilities 
of either. Many reports have been received from operators who con- 
sider traction plowing an absolute failure, and many from men who 
apparently have had great success with it; hence, the difficulty of 

170 



38 TKACTION PLOWING. 

approving or condemning the practice without a full knowledge of 
local conditions. 

The operator who depends largely or wholly upon outside work is 
more immediately concerned with the cost of plowing than the land- 
owner, as profits must come from the difference between the cost and 
the custom rate. It has been shown that of the acreage plowed by 
correspondents the custom-plowed area is nearly or more than equal 
to that plowed for the owners of the outfits. A comparatively small 
number do custom plowing exclusively and few outfits are main- 
tained entirely for use on the owner's land, though the latter are said 
to be increasing in number with the adoption of smaller gasoline 
tractors. The smaller percentage of custom plowing reported by the 
gasoline operators also indicates that more steam outfits are kept 
mainly for custom plowing, and in sections where the custom rate is 
low it is doubtful whether any but the most successful can make a 
fair profit. In August, 1908, at one point in western Kansas, a local 
coal dealer reported that fourteen steam operators were doing custom 
work at the current rate of $1.25 for plowing and harrowing stubble 
land, and of the fourteen there was but one to whom he would extend 
credit on fuel. In this case competition, not with horses but between 
traction outfits, had forced the price per acre down to the point where 
if reasonably good work were done only excellent management and 
good luck could net a profit. The custom operator must usually pay 
a higher rate of wage than the farm owner, as the latter can give con- 
tinuous employment during the month, while the former commonly 
pays his help only for days actually worked. Disabling accidents 
represent a total loss of time and income to the custom operator, but 
the farm owner is seldom wholly dependent on his engine for plowing 
and can make some headway without it. 

The purchaser of a custom outfit assumes a considerable risk, and 
if ample margin between the cost and the custom rate is not to be 
had he invites failure in case of unfavorable circumstances. In 
estimating the yearly acreage required to make such a venture profit- 
able, a separation of costs into fixed and variable items is necessary. 
Supposing the daily capacity of the outfit to be known, the items for 
fuel, labor, repairs, and oil may be reduced to a fixed acre cost. 
Table III indicates a total of $1,183 for these items for steam outfits 
in the Northwest doing both plowing and thrashing. If tliis figure 
and the ratio between the cost of breaking and that of plowing 
previously suggested be assumed as correct, these items would 
amount to $1.38 for breaking and $0,986 for plowing. Calculating 
interest and depreciation on engine, plows, and miscellaneous equip- 
ment as before and assuming that they will remain constant with a 
reasonable variation in acreage each year, the annual total chargeable 

170 



PEACTICABILITY OF TKACTION PLOWING. 39 

to plowing would amount to approximately $486. On the basis of 
the 658 acres per outfit shown on a previous page the overhead 
charges would be 74 cents an acre. However, if it is desired only to 
meet the custom rates of $1.50 for plowdng and $3 for breaking pre- 
vailing in parts of the Dakotas, the necessary acreage may be approxi- 
mated by dividing $486 by the difference between $1.38 in one case 
and $3 in the other. Tliis method gives 945 acres of plowing or 300 
acres of breaking as the volume of work which will under the fore- 
going conditions pay operating expenses and cover interest and depre- 
ciation. Tliis would require from sixteen to twenty days of breaking 
or thirty-five to forty days of plowing, without taking into account 
expenses on off days or in moving. Since the breaking season in 
this section is usually of at least six weeks' duration and the plowing 
season of equal length after the thrashing season, it can be seen that 
with good weather and management the plowing venture may be a 
financial success. It can not be too strongly emphasized, however, 
that the practicability of such a venture depends largely upon an 
undetermined factor, namely, the hfe of the outfit. The overhead 
charges suggested are based on an assumption in this regard that 
may prove to be wrong in general and certainly will not be true in 
every individual case. For this reason in particular the custom oper- 
ator's venture is attended with considerable risk of failure, and better 
care than is usually given to farm machinery should be used in extend- 
ing the life of a costly plowing equipment over a profitable period of 
service. 

Granting the practicabihty of traction plowing under given 
conditions, the selection of equipment, and especially of the tractor, 
is a vital point. Plows for this work are in the main satisfactory 
and, being confined to comparatively few makes, are more easily 
investigated. However, the large and rapidly growing number of 
traction engines offered for sale makes selection difficult. To be 
practicable the tractor must be powerful, durable, economical, and 
simple, with emphasis on all four points. It must draw a profitable 
load continuously while at work and that without excessive depre- 
ciation and repair charges. It must be economical of fuel and labor 
and not so comphcated as to require skill not readily acquired by the 
average farmer. In addition to serviceabihty in plowing it should 
be adapted to a wide range of usefulness in order to compete seriously 
with the horse as a source of motive power. 

As to size, it may be said that for plowing alone and where work 
is abundant and delays few, the largest engines are the most eco- 
nomical, as the cost of labor and the interest and depreciation may 
be distributed over a larger acreage. However, the larger the outfit 
the longer the period of delay occasioned by wet weather and the 

170 



40 TRACTION PLOWING. 

more limited the sphere of usefulness. A larger acreage must be 
provided to utilize the plowing capacity of the engine, and in other 
work, such as thrashing, hauling, disking, harrowing, seeding, etc., 
frequently economical use can not be made of the power of the 
largest engines. The smaller engines are less economical of fuel and 
labor, but being better adapted to a variety of purposes reduce the 
overhead charges through increasing the days of service rendered. 

Both steam and gasoline tractors have their advantages for this 
work. The former are more advanced as a class and are built in 
larger units, and hence are popular where conditions demand great 
power, as in breaking large acreages. Reference has already been 
made to the matter of rating engines, the steam engines as a class 
having a larger reserve power over the nominal rating than gasoline 
engines and greater tractive efficiency per nominal horsepower. On 
the other hand, gasoline tractors, possibly on account of size, can 
usually transform into effective pull a larger percentage of the 
power actually developed than can steam tractors. No great differ- 
ence in weight per actual brake horsepower exists, but a slight ad- 
vantage in favor of gasoline tractors as to weight per actual draw- 
bar horsepower was indicated as a result of competitive tests at 
Winnipeg in July, 1909. Both, it may be said, were considerably 
below the horse in weight per unit of pulling power, and of course 
had a still greater advantage in driving stationary machinery. A 
greater weight of supplies must be carried by steam engines, this, of 
course, adding nothing to their strength. Gasoline engines are usu- 
ally capable of longer runs without replenishing supplies, and less 
time is therefore lost on this account. They have the advantage in 
being quickly started and in not consuming fuel when not at work. 
The matter of supplying fuel is simpler and the expensive process 
of supplying water is reduced to a minimum. Internal-combustion 
engines as a class convert into work a much greater proportion of 
the thermal units in fuel than do steam engines, but present types 
are restricted in the kinds of fuel which can be used to advantage. 
Steam engines use a wide variety of fuels with little difference in 
efficiency and are consequently less dependent on limited sources of 
supply. 

Aside from the foregoing considerations, the essentials are prac- 
tically the same for both types. Strength must be a prime feature 
of a successful farm motor. This applies particularly to frame and 
traction gearing. The latter should be of steel or semisteel, wide in 
face and bearing, and of the best workmanship. The gearing should 
be absolutely protected from dust, as should all bearing surfaces. 
The gears probably more than any other parts are subject to wear 
and breakage and should receive great attention from both manu- 

170 



PEACTICABILITY OF TRACTION PLOWING. 41 

facturers and purchasers. They should be in perfect alignment at 
all times to prevent unequal wear, followed by strain and breakage. 
Rigidity of frame and wide bearings tend to effect this alignment, 
yet in so far as is possible flexibility should be allowed in order to 
minimize the effect of rough ground. Jolting should be transmitted 
as little as possible to moving parts mounted on the boiler frame. 
Perfect lubrication is necessary, and all parts of the engine should 
be easily and instantly accessible for repairs or adjustment. 

The traction wheel is a fundamental point. One authority states 
that in building a tractor he would first build the wheel and then the 
engine. The wheel must be either wide enough or high enough to 
support the weight of the engine on soft ground and to distribute it 
under all circumstances without undue packing of the soil. Some 
tractors already rival the horse in the matter of weight per unit of 
bearing surface. Besides width and height there must be a proper 
arrangement of lugs on the surface of the wheel in order that it may 
grip the soil firmly and still not clog. Great loss of power may 
occur in this simple point of application. Types of wheel composed 
of independent pedals are being developed, with a view to reducing 
the loss through slippage. 

In general it may be said that the progress made in the last six 
years in the development of both steam and gasoline tractors has 
been remarkable and that the concentration of capital and thought 
upon the problem of supplying practicable farm motors gives promise 
of even more rapid progress in the next decade. When it is consid- 
ered that during the long era of development of farm machinery no 
radical improvement has been effected in the animal as a source of 
motive power, it is not surprising that the early history of plowing 
by mechanical prime movers does not show a general advantage in 
economy over ordinary methods. The animal as a motor has many 
advantages which must be overcome before the universal introduc- 
tion of mechanical substitutes, and the latter is not imminent. 
However, the increasing purchase and use of smaller tractors by 
western farmers, not only in grain-growing sections but on larger 
farms in the corn belt, indicate that practical men are finding profit- 
able employment for a general-purpose farm engine. So long as 
large areas of prairie remain to be broken there will be a field for the 
large plowing engine developed for that purpose alone, but the 
activity displayed by inventors and manufacturers justifies the 
expectation of dependable farm motors, varying in type and size, 
adapted to a much greater variety of work than that in which they 
have hitherto been chiefly employed. 

170 



INDEX. 

Page. 

Beet farming, use of cable system of plowing 27-28 

Boilers, traction-plowing engines, variations 14 

Breaking raw land, advantages of traction outfits, discussion 37 

sod, traction outfits, compared with stubble plowing 22 

wild, use of moldboard plows 10 

with gasoline traction engines, cost compared with plowing 34 

Cables for steam plowing, description of system, equipment, cost, etc 27-28 

California, plowing, traction, conditions, requirements, etc 11 

use of Stockton gang 13 

Canada, plowing, traction, conditions, methods, etc 10 

gasoline, cost, etc 32-33 

Cylinders, traction engines, gasoline, arrangement 29 

variations 14, 19 

Dakotas, plowing, horse, cost 37 

Disk plows. See Plows, disk. 

Distillate engines. See Engines, gasoline. 

use in traction plowing, economy 29 

See also Kerosene. 

Engineer, steam-plowing operations, wages 20 

Engines, distillate. See Engines, gasoline. 

gasoline, traction plowing, cost of operation 30-34 

types, description, cost, etc 14, 28-30 

internal-combustion, traction plowing, types and descriptions 28-30 

See also Engines, gasoline. 

kerosene. See Engines, gasoline. 

plowing, traction, boilers, variations 14 

cylinders, variations ^-4, 29 

early, description 7 

number of plows to different types 12-13 

selection 39-41 

types, equipment, cost, etc 14-15, 28-29 

steam, traction plowing, results with different sizes 26-27 

tractive horsepower, rating, discussion 15 

types, description, cost, etc 14-15 

wear in thrashing and plowing compared 18-19 

See also Tractors. 

Fields, fenced, traction plowing, suggestions 23 

small, traction plowing, suggestions 23 

Fuel, tractors, gasoline, kinds, cost, etc 29-30 

steam, kinds 20-21 

traction plowing. Northwestern States and Canada 10 

Gang, Stockton, description, use, etc 13-14 

Gangs, moldboard, traction plowing, management, sizes, etc 13 

small, disk plows, advantages for traction plowing 12 

See also Plows. 

43 

170 



44 TEACTION PLOWING. 

Page. 
Gasoline engines. See Engines, gasoline. 

use in traction plowing, economy 29-30 

Harrowing by traction-plowing outfits, prices 24 

Harrows, kinds needed for traction plowing 16 

Horse plowing. See Plowing, horse. 
Internal-combustion engines. See Engines, gasoline. 

Introduction to bulletin 7-8 

Kerosene engines. See Engines, gasoline. 

use for traction plowing, economy 29-30 

Labor, plowing, traction, gasoline outfits, requirements 31-32 

steam outfits, requirements 20-21 

Land, raw, breaking, advantages of traction outfits 37 

Minnesota, plowing with horses, cost 34-36 

Moldboard plows. See Plows, moldboard. 

Northwest, plowing, traction, fuel 10, 32-34 

gasoline, cost, etc 32-34 

Oil, steam traction plowing, cost 20 

Plowing, horse, cost 34-36, 37 

steam, cable system, description, equipment, cost, etc 27-28 

traction, Canada, difficulties, methods, etc 10 

cost with gasoline engines 30-34 

steam engines 23-24, 25-26, 38 

custom work, practicability, considerations, etc 38-41 

data from different sections 24-27 

early attempts, causes of failure, etc 7 

description of engines used 7 

plows used 7 

engines, types, equipment, cost, etc 14-15, 28-30 

equipment 11-16, 28-30 

fenced fields, suggestions 23 

fuel, Canada and Northwestern States 10 

use of distillate 29 

gasoline, economy 29-30 

kerosene, economy 29-30 

gasoline, Canada, cost, etc 32-33 

cost, etc 32-34 

compared with breaking 34 

Northwest, cost, etc 32-34 

outfits, cost of operating in different sections 31-34 

operations in different sections, data and 

tables 32-34 

outfits, capacity 21-23 

geographical distribution 9 

income 23-24 

practicability 36-41 

rush seasons, suggestions, caution, etc 23 

sections, principal 10-11 

small fields, suggestions 23 

steam, consumption of water 21 

cost in different sections 23-24, 25-26, 38 

outfits, cost of operation, overhead charges, etc 16-19 

durability, length of service, etc 17-18 

economy of operation, factors 16-21 

170 



INDEX. 45 



Plowing, traction, steam, outfits, labor requirements 20-21 

repairs, oil, etc 19-20 

results in different sections 24-25 

stubble land. Northwestern States and Canada 10 

See also Engines, Gangs, and Tractors. 

Plows, disk, compared with moldboard plows 10 

gangs, small, advantages for traction plowing 12 

use with traction engines, management, sizes, etc 12-13 

disks, number to different types of traction engines 12-13, 22 

hand-lift, management, cost, etc 13 

moldboard, compared with disk plows 10 

number to different types of traction engines 13, 22 

use for breaking wild sod 10 

with traction engines, management, cost, etc 13 

traction, advantages in breaking raw land 37 

over horse plows, demand, etc 8 

description 12-14 

early, description 7 

gasoline, use, history, etc 30-31 

sod breaking compared with stubble plowing 22 

See also Gangs and Tractors. 

Repairs, steam traction-plowing outfit, cost per acre 19-20 

Sod, breaking, compared with stubble plowing by traction outfits 22 

wild, breaking, use of moldboard plows 10 

Southwest, plowing, traction 10-11 

gasoline, cost, etc 32-33 

Steam engines. See Engines, steam, and Tractors, steam. 

plowing. See Plowing, steam; Plowing, traction; and Tractors, steam. 
Stockton gang. See Gang, Stockton. 

Stubble, plowing, compared with sod breaking by traction outfits 22 

Traction plowing. See Plowing, traction, 
plows. See Plows, traction. 

Tractors, gasoline, cylinders, arrangement 29 

demand in semiarid regions 11 

durability 31 

equipment, miscellaneous 31 

fuel, kinds, cost, etc 29-30 

repairs, cost 31 

use and manufacture - 8 

internal-combustion, demand, causes 8 

See also Tractors, gasoline. 

steam, cost of plowing in different sections 24-25, 25-26, 38 

fuel, kinds used 20-21 

See also Engines and Plowing, traction. 

Wagons, kinds needed for traction plowing 16 

Water, alkali or muddy, use in steam plowing, caution 21 

steam plowing, consumption 21 

Wheel, traction, in engines, importance 41 

170 

o 



[Contiuued from page 2 of cover.] 

No. 91. Variotios of Tobacco Seed Distributed, etc. 1906. Price, 5 cents. 

92. Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis. 1906. Price, 25 cents. 

93. Tlie Control of Apple Bitter-Rot. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 

94. Farm Practice wilh Foiase Crops in Western Oregon, etc. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 

95. A New Type of Red Clover. 1906. Price, 10 cents. 
90. Tobacco Breeding. 1007. Price, 15 cents. 

97. Seeds and Plants Imported. InventoryNo.il. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

98. Soy Bean Varieties. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

99. Quick Method for Determination of Moisture in Grain. 1907. Price, 5 cents. 

100. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 25 cents. 

101. Contcntsof and Index to Bulletins Nos. 1 to 100. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

102. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

103. Dry Farming in the Great Basin. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

104. The Use of Feldspathic Rocks as Fertilizers. 1907. Price, 5 cents. 

105. Relation of Composition of Leaf to Burning of Tobacco. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

106. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 12. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

107. American Root Drugs. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

108. The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

109. American Varieties of Garden Beans. 1907. Price, 25 cents. 

110. Cranberry Diseases. 1907. Price, 20 cents. 

111. Miscellaneous Papers. 1907. Price, 15 cents. 

112. Use of Suprarenal Glands in Testing of Drug Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

113. Tolerance of Plants for Salts Common in Alkali Soils. 1907. I'rice, 5 cents. 

114. Sap-Rot and Other Diseases of the Red Gum. 1907. Price, 25 cents. 

115. Disinfection of Sewage for Protection of Water Supplies. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

116. The Tuna as Food for Man. 1907. Price, 25 cents. 

117. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

118. Peruvian Alfalfa. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

119. The Mulberry and Other Silkworm Food Plants. 1907. Price, 10 cents. 

120. Production of Easter Lily Bulbs in the United States. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

121. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

122. Curly-Top, a Disease of Sugar Beets. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

123. The Decay of Oranges in Transit from California. 1908. Price, 20 cents. 

124. The Prickly Pear as a Farm Crop. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

125. Dry-Land Olive Culture in Northern Africa. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

126. Nomenclature of the Pear. 1908. Price, 30 cents. 

127. The Improvement of Mountain Meadows. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

128. Egyptian Cotton in the Southwestern United States. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

129. Barium, a Cause of the Loco- Weed Disease. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

130. Dry-Land Agriculture. 1908. Price,. 10 cents. 

131. Miscellaneous Papers. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

133. Peach, Apricot, and Prune Kernels as By-Products. 1908. Price, 5 cents. 

134. Influence of Soluble Salts, Principally Sodium Chlorid, upon Leaf Structure and Transpiration 

of Wheat, Oats, and Barley. 1908. Price, 5 cents. 

135. Orchard Fruits in Piedmont and Blue Ridge Regions, etc. 1908. Price, 20 cents. 

136. Methods and Causes of Evolution. 1908. Price, 10 cents. 

137. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 14. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

138. The Production of Cigar-Wrapper Toliacco under Shade. 1908. Price, 15 cents. 

139. American Medicinal Barks. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

140. "Spineless" Prickly Pears. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

141. Miscellaneous Papers. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

142. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 15. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

143. Principles and Practical Methods of Curing Tobacco. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

144. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

145. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

146. The Superiority of Line Breeding over Narrow Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

147. Suppressed and Intensified Characters in Cotton Hybrids. 1909. Price, 5 cents. 

148. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. Hi. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

149. Diseases of Deciduous Forest Trees. 1909. Price. 15 cents. 

150. The Wild Alfalfas and Clovers of Siberia. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

151. Fruits Recommended for Cultivation. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

152. The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

153. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 17. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

154. Farm Water Supplies of Minnesota. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

155. The Control of Black-Rot of the Grape. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

156. A Study of Diversity in Egyptian Cotton. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

157. The Truckee-Carson Experiment Farm. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

1.58. The Root-Rot of Tobacco Caused by Thielavia Basicola. 1909. Price, 15 cents 

159. Local Adjustment of Cotton Varieties. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

160. Italian Lemons and Their Bv-Products. 1909. Price, 15 cents. 

161. A New Type of Indian Com from China. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

162. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 18. 1909. Price, 10 am ts. 

163. Varieties of American Upland Cotton. 1910. Price, — cents. 

164. Promising Root Crops for the South. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 

165. .Vpplication of Principles of Heredity to Plant Breeding. 1909. Price, 10 cents. 

166. The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 

167. New Methods of Plant Breeding. 1910. Price, — cents. 

168. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 19. 1909. Price, 5 cents. 

169. Variegated Alfalfa. 1910. Price, 10 cents. 

170 



-^1 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



DDD27Sfl3Tt:T 






Ji i:J!' ' } W«^ 




v^; 



